Deterrence theory and bullying: An assessment of policies and practices aimed at deterring youth bullying

Volume 6, Issue 3, June 2022     |     PP. 120-138      |     PDF (227 K)    |     Pub. Date: May 3, 2022
DOI: 10.54647/sociology84789    109 Downloads     4761 Views  

Author(s)

Karla Dhungana Sainju, Ontario Tech University, Canada

Abstract
Bullying can cause serious short and long-term social, psychological, physiological, and educational harm hindering positive youth development. Given the detrimental impacts, a range of legislative, policy, and programmatic efforts have been enacted to deter and address the problem of youth bullying. Deterrence theory suggests that sanctions or the threat of sanctions prevents delinquent behavior. Moreover, the theory posits that humans are rational actors who will consider the consequences of their behavior before engaging in it. Using a deterrence theory framework, this paper provides a synthesis of policies and programs enacted in the United States and Canada that are aimed at deterring bullying behavior including school anti-bullying policies and mandates, and bullying sanctions aimed at youth and parents. This is followed by a discussion on the effectiveness of these efforts and the paper ends with considerations of evidence-based approaches to advance anti-bullying practice and policy.

Keywords
Bullying prevention, Deterrence theory, Bullying sanctions, Anti-bullying policy

Cite this paper
Karla Dhungana Sainju, Deterrence theory and bullying: An assessment of policies and practices aimed at deterring youth bullying , SCIREA Journal of Sociology. Volume 6, Issue 3, June 2022 | PP. 120-138. 10.54647/sociology84789

References

[ 1 ] Olweus, D. (1993). Bullying at School: What We Know and What We Can Do. Blackwell Publishers. Cambridge, MA.
[ 2 ] Modecki, K. L., Minchina, J., Harbaugh, A. G., Guerra, A. G., & Runions, K.C. (2014). Bullying prevalence across contexts: A Meta-analysis measuring cyber and traditional bullying. Journal of Adolescent Health, 55(5), 602-611.
[ 3 ] Patchin, J. (2019). Summary of Our Cyberbullying Research (2007-2019). Cyberbullying Research Center. Retrieved from https://cyberbullying.org/summary-of-our-cyberbullying- research
[ 4 ] George, M. J., & Odgers, C. L. (2015). Seven Fears and the Science of How Mobile Technologies May Be Influencing Adolescents in the Digital Age. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(6), 832–851. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691615596788
[ 5 ] Hamm, M., Newton, A., Chisholm, A., Shulhan, J., Milne, A., Sundar, P., Ennis, H., Scott, S.D. & Hartling, L. (2015). Prevalence and Effect of Cyberbullying on Children and Young People: A Scoping Review of Social Media Studies. JAMA Pediatrics, 169(8):770-7.
[ 6 ] Kaltiala-Heinofl, R., Rimpela, M., Rantanen, P., & Rimpela. (2000). Bullying at school—an indicator of adolescents at risk for mental disorders. Journal of Adolescence, 23(6), 661-674.
[ 7 ] Gini, G. & Pozzoli, T. (2009). Association between bullying and psychosomatic problems: A meta-analysis. Pediatrics, 123(3), 1059-1065.
[ 8 ] Ponzo, M. (2013). Does bullying reduce educational achievement? An evaluation using matching estimators, Journal of Policy Modeling, 35(6), 1057-1078, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpolmod.2013.06.002.
[ 9 ] Houbre, B., Tarquinio, C., Thuillier, I., & Hergott, E. (2006). Bullying among students and its consequences on health. European Journal of Psychology of Education 21, 183–208. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03173576
[ 10 ] Rigby, K. & Slee, P. (1999), Suicidal ideation among adolescent school children, involvement in bully-victim problems, and perceived social support. Suicide and Life‐Threatening Behavior, 29: 119-130. doi:10.1111/j.1943-278X.1999.tb01050.x
[ 11 ] Sigurdson, J.F., Wallander, J, Sund, A.M. (2014). Is involvement in school bullying associated with general health and psychosocial adjustment outcomes in adulthood? Child Abuse and Neglect, 38:1607–17.
[ 12 ] Pratt, T. C., Cullen, F. T., Blevins, K. R., Daigle, L. E., & Madensen, T. D. (2006). The Empirical Status of Deterrence Theory: A Meta-Analysis. In F. T. Cullen, J. P. Wright, & K. R. Blevins (Eds.), Advances in criminological theory: Vol. 15. Taking stock: The status of criminological theory (p. 367–395). Transaction Publishers.
[ 13 ] Nagin, D. (2013). Deterrence in the Twenty-First Century. Crime and Justice, 42(1), 199-263. doi:10.1086/670398
[ 14 ] Nagin, D. S., Cullen, F. T., & Jonson, C. L. (2009). Imprisonment and reoffending. In Tonry, M. (Ed.), Crime and justice: A review of research (Vol. 38, pp. 115-200). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
[ 15 ] Beccaria, C. (1963). On crimes and punishments (introduction by H. Paolucci, Trans.). New York: Macmillan. (Original work published 1764)
[ 16 ] Essex, N. (2011). Bullying and School Liability-Implications for School Personnel. The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 84(5), 192–196. https://doi.org/10.1080/00098655.2011.564678
[ 17 ] Kohut, M. (2007). The complete guide to understanding, controlling, and stopping bullies and bullying: A complete guide for teachers and parents. Ocala, FL. Atlantic Publishing Group.
[ 18 ] Cyberbullying Research Center. (n.d). Bullying laws across America. Retrieved from https://cyberbullying.org/bullying-laws
[ 19 ] PREVNet. (2019). Bullying policy and legislation: How the law deals with bullying across Canada. Retrieved from https://www.prevnet.ca/resources/policy-and-legislation
[ 20 ] Cornell, D., & Limber, S. P. (2016). Do U.S. laws go far enough to prevent bullying at school? CE Corner, American Psychological Association. 47, 2, 64.
[ 21 ] Sherer, Y.C. & Nickerson, A.B. (2010), Anti‐bullying practices in American schools: Perspectives of school psychologists. Psychology in the Schools, 47: 217-229. doi:10.1002/pits.20466
[ 22 ] Boccanfuso, C. & Kuhfeld, M. (2011). Multiple responses, promising results: Evidence-based nonpunitive alternatives to zero tolerance. Child Trends. Research-to-Results Brief. Publication #2011-09
[ 23 ] Skiba, R., & Rausch, M. K. (2006a). Zero tolerance, suspension, and expulsion: Questions of equity and effectiveness. In C. M. Evertson & C. S. Weinstein (Eds.), Handbook of classroom management: Research, practice, and contemporary issues (pp. 1063-1089). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Association.
[ 24 ] Cornell, D., & Limber, S. P. (2015). Law and policy on the concept of bullying at school. American Psychologist, 70(4), 333–343.
[ 25 ] Government of Canada (2017). Cyberbullying and the Non-consensual Distribution of Intimate Images. Department of Justice. Retrieved from https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/rp-pr/other- autre/cndii-cdncii/p4.html
[ 26 ] Texas SB 179 (n.d). David’s Law 85th Texas Legislative Session. Retrieved from https://www.davidslegacy.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/Davids-Law-One-Pager-R2.pdf
[ 27 ] California Penal Code. (n.d.). Cal. Pen. Code § 653.2. Retrieved from https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displaySection.xhtml?lawCode=PEN
[ 28 ] Nova Scotia Legislature. (2017). Intimate Images and Cyber-Protection Act. Chapter 7 of the Acts of 2017. Retrieved from https://nslegislature.ca/sites/default/files/legc/statutes/intimate%20images%20and%20cyber-protection.pdf
[ 29 ] Bavis, B. & Brammer, R. (2013). Municipal codes: A beginner’s guide. The Library of Congress. Retrieved from https://blogs.loc.gov/law/2013/11/municipal-codes-a-beginners-guide/
[ 30 ] City of Regina. (n.d.) Bylaw #2006-38. Retrieved from http://open.regina.ca/dataset/f05ed63c-18c5-496a-b96b-866bf963e8ea/resource/20382b55-f668-49f9-acb2-01ebd50e6145/download/2006-38b06.pdf
[ 31 ] City of Edmonton. (n.d.). Bylaw 14614 Public Places Bylaw. Retrieved from https://cityarchives.edmonton.ca/uploads/r/office-of-the-city-clerk- 1975/6/8/a/68aed2797b748560e6b5c8c393277f69f6996bad5719b92fc46ac13e1dd0f964/BL14614.pdf
[ 32 ] City of Airdrie (2013). Bylaw No. B-22/2013. Retrieved from https://www.airdrie.ca/getDocument.cfm?ID=1854
[ 33 ] Town of Eston. (2013). Bylaw 2-2013. Retrieved from https://www.eston.ca/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/No.-2-2013-Anti-bullying-Bylaw-2.pdf
[ 34 ] Town of Grenfell. (n.d.). Bylaw 691-13. Retrieved from https://townofgrenfell.civicweb.net/document/5121
[ 35 ] City of Grand Praire. (n.d.). Office Consolidation Bylaw C-1103F. Retrieved from https://www.cityofgp.com/sites/default/files/uploads/bylaws/bc1103-office-consolidation.pdf
[ 36 ] Frankel, D. & Kershenbaum, J.M. (2012). Parents of bullies can be sued. Metrokids. Retrieved from https://www.metrokids.com/parents-of-bullies-can-be-sued/
[ 37 ] Parental Responsibility Act, 2000, SO 2000, c 4. Retrieved from https://www.canlii.org/en/on/laws/stat/so-2000-c-4/2577/so-2000-c-4.html
[ 38 ] Pennsylvania State Legislature. (n.d.). Title 23 Pa. Code §§ 5502 and 5505. Retrieved from https://www.legis.state.pa.us/cfdocs/legis/LI/consCheck.cfm?txtType=HTM&ttl=23&div=0&chpt=55
[ 39 ] Delaware Code. (n.d.). State of Delaware. 10 Del. C. § 3922. Retrieved from https://delcode.delaware.gov/title10/c039/index.shtml
[ 40 ] New Jersey Revised Statutes (n.d.). Title 18A – Education. Section 18A:37-3 - Liability of parents or guardian of minor for damage to property. Retrieved from https://law.justia.com/codes/new-jersey/2013/title-18a/section-18a-37-3/
[ 41 ] City of North Tonawanda (n.d.). Chapter 70A. Promoting General Welfare of Minors. § 70A-3.Bullying; harassment. Retrieved from https://www.ecode360.com/32626886?highlight=bullying&searchId=11716280253229701
[ 42 ] Village of Plover. (n.d.). Chapter 406: Peace and Good Order. Retrieved from http://www.ploverwi.gov/ordinances/Chapter%20406%20%20Peace%20and%20Good%20Order.pdf
[ 43 ] City of Shawano (n.d.) Offenses endangering public peace and good order. Retrieved from https://www.ecode360.com/31981455?highlight=bullying
[ 44 ] The Associated Press. (2019, June 9). Proposed Wisconsin city ordinance to fine parents of bullies. ABC News. Retrieved from https://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/proposed-wisconsin-city-ordinance-fine-parents-bullies-63591065
[ 45 ] Siegler, M. (2019, February 13). Notes tell Wisconsin Rapids seventh-grader to end her life, sparking Facebook outrage. Wisconsin Rapids Tribune. Retrieved from https://www.wisconsinrapidstribune.com/story/news/2019/02/13/wisconsin-rapids-bullying-student-gets-notes-calling-suicide/2836496002/
[ 46 ] Wisconsin Rapids (n.d.). Chapter 25: Offenses against Public Welfare, Safety, Morals, and Peace. Retrieved from https://www.wirapids.org/uploads/1/0/3/3/103347874/chapter_25.offenses_against_public.pdf
[ 47 ] Paternoster, R. (2010). How much do we really know about criminal deterrence, Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 100(3) 765-824.
[ 48 ] Jimenez-Barbero, J.A., Ruiz-Hernandez, J.A., Llor, L., Perez-Garcia, M., & Llor-Esteban, B. (2016). Effectiveness of anti-bullying school programs: A meta-analysis. Child and Youth Services Review, 61, 165-175.
[ 49 ] Lee, S., Chun-Ja, J., & Kim, D.H. (2015). A meta-analysis of the effect of school-based anti-bullying programs. Journal of Child Health Care, 19(2), 136-153.
[ 50 ] Merrell, K.W., Gueldner, B.A., & Ross, S.W. (2008). How Effective Are School Bullying Intervention Programs? School Psychology Quarterly, 23(1), 26-42.
[ 51 ] Ttofi, M.M., Farrington, D.P., Losel F., & Loeber, R. (2011). The predictive efficiency of school bullying versus later offending: A systematic/meta-analytic review of longitudinal studies. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 21(2): 80–89.
[ 52 ] Yeager, D.S., Fong, C.J., Lee, H.Y., & Espelage, D. (2015). Declines in efficacy of anti-bullying programs among older adolescents: Theory and a three-level meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 37, 36-51.
[ 53 ] Finkelhor, D., Vanderminden, J., Turner, H., Shattuck, A., & Hamby, S. (2014). Youth exposure to violence prevention programs in a national sample. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38 (2014), 677—686.
[ 54 ] Global News. (2015, June 5). Teen first to be punished under Regina’s anti-bullying bylaw. Global News. Retrieved from https://globalnews.ca/news/2037405/teen-first-to-be-punished-under-reginas-anti-bullying-bylaw/
[ 55 ] Airdrie City View. (2016, February 18). Questions remain about the effectiveness of anti-bullying bylaw. AirdrieToday.com. Retrieved from https://www.airdrietoday.com/local-news/questions-remain-about-effectiveness-of-anti-bullying-bylaw-1416114
[ 56 ] Giacobbe, A. (2020, January 21). The tragic, enduring legacy of Phoebe Prince. Boston Magazine. Retrieved from https://www.bostonmagazine.com/education/2020/01/21/phoebe-prince-bullying/
[ 57 ] Rappaport, N. (2020, January 17). 10 years after Phoebe Prince’s suicide, schools are still getting it wrong. WBUR. Retrieved from https://www.wbur.org/cognoscenti/2020/01/17/phoebe-prince-suicide-schools-nancy-rappaport
[ 58 ] Centers for Disease Control (CDC). Youth Risk Behavior Survey Data & Documentation. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/data/yrbs/data.htm
[ 59 ] Department of Education (DOE) (n.d.) 2017-2018 Massachusetts Student Discipline Data Report– Bullying – All Students. Retrieved from http://profiles.doe.mass.edu/statereport/ssdr.aspx
[ 60 ] Kausch, K. (2018, November 20). No criminal charges in Mallory Grossman's death: Prosecutor. Patch. Retrieved from https://patch.com/new-jersey/parsippany/no-criminal-charges-mallory-grossmans-death-prosecutor
[ 61 ] New Jersey Legislature. (n.d). Chapter 122. Retrieved from https://www.njleg.state.nj.us/2010/Bills/PL10/122_.PDF
[ 62 ] New Jersey News 12. (2019, August 30). KIYC: Anti-bullying laws should be better enforced or revised, victims say – Part 3. New Jersey News 12. Retrieved from http://newjersey.news12.com/story/40981564/kiyc-antibullying-laws-should-be-better-enforced-or-revised-victims-say-part-3
[ 63 ] Cyber-Safety Act. (2013). Canadian Legal Information Institute. Retrieved from https://www.canlii.org/en/ns/laws/stat/sns-2013-c-2/latest/sns-2013-c-2.html
[ 64 ] Ruskin, B. (2015, December 11). Court strikes down anti-cyberbullying law created after Rehtaeh Parsons's death. CBC News. Retrieved from https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/cyberbullying-law-struck-down-1.3360612
[ 65 ] Patchin, J. & Hinduja, S. (2016). Deterring teen bullying: Assessing the impact of perceived punishment from police, schools, and parents. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 16(2) 1-18.
[ 66 ] Loughran, T.A., Brame, R., Fagan, J., Piquero, A.R., Mulvey, E.P., & Schubert, C. (2015). Studying deterrence among high-risk adolescents. Juvenile Justice Bulletin. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. Retrieved from https://ojjdp.ojp.gov/sites/g/files/xyckuh176/files/pubs/248617.pdf
[ 67 ] Smith, P., Goggin, C., & Gendreau, P. (2002). The Effects of Prison Sentences and Intermediate Sanctions on Recidivism: General Effects and Individual Differences. Ottawa: Public Works and Government Services Canada.
[ 68 ] Advancement Project, Education Law Center- PA, FairTest, The Forum for Education and Democracy, Juvenile Law Center, & NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, Inc. (2011). Federal Policy, ESEA Reauthorization, and the School-to-Prison Pipeline. Retrieved from: http://b.3cdn.net/advancement/51d51e76dc0ae9e1fe_nam6baeap.pdf
[ 69 ] American Academy of Pediatrics (2003). Out-of-school suspension and expulsion. Policy Statement. Committee on School Health. Retrieved from https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/pediatrics/112/5/1206.full.pdf?download=true
[ 70 ] Aizer, A. & Doyle, J.J. Jr. (2015). Juvenile Incarceration, Human Capital, and Future Crime: Evidence from Randomly Assigned Judges. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 130 (2), 759–803.
[ 71 ] Bayer, P., Hjalmarsson, R., & Pozen, D. (2007). Building criminal capital behind bars: Peer effects in juvenile corrections. NBER Working Paper Series. Working Paper 12932. National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved from https://www.nber.org/papers/w12932.pdf
[ 72 ] ereya, S. T., Samara, M., & Wolke, D. (2013). Parenting behavior and the risk of becoming a victim and a bully/victim: A meta-analysis study. Child Abuse & Neglect, 37(12), 1091–1108
[ 73 ] Patchin, J. (2013). Holding parents responsible for their child’s bullying. Cyberbullying Research Center. Retrieved from https://cyberbullying.org/holding-parents-responsible-for-their-childs-bullying
[ 74 ] Ruder, D.B. (2008). The Teen Brain. Harvard Magazine. Retrieved from https://www.harvardmagazine.com/2008/09/the-teen-brain.html
[ 75 ] Saarento, S., Kärnä, A., Hodges, E. V. E., & Salmivalli, C. (2013). Student-, classroom, and school-level risk factors for victimization. Journal of School Psychology, 51, 421–434. 
[ 76 ] Crothers, L. M., Kolbert, J. B., & Barker, W. F. (2006). Middle school students' preferences for anti-bullying interventions. School Psychology International, 27(4), 475-487.
[ 77 ] Espelage, D. L., Polanin, J. R., & Low, S. K. (2014). Teacher and staff perceptions of school environment as predictors of student aggression, victimization, and willingness to intervene in bullying situations. School Psychology Quarterly, 29, 287–305.
[ 78 ] Guerra, N. G., Williams, K. R., & Sadek, S. (2011). Understanding bullying and victimization during childhood and adolescence: A mixed methods study. Child Development, 82, 295–310.
[ 79 ] Durlak, J. A., Weissberg, R. P., Dymnicki, A. B., Taylor, R. D., Schellinger, K. B. (2011). The impact of enhancing students’ social and emotional learning: A meta-analysis of school-based universal interventions. Child Development, 82, 405–432.
[ 80 ] Hatzenbuehler, M.L., Schwab-Reese, L., Ranapurwala, S.I., Hertz, M.F., Ramirez, M.R. (2015). Associations between anti-bullying policies and bullying in 25 states. JAMA Pediatrics, 169 (10):e152411.
[ 81 ] Kull, R., Greytak, E., Kosciw, J. & Villenas, C. (2016). Effectiveness of school district antibullying policies in improving LGBT youths' school climate. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 3. 407-415.
[ 82 ] Kann, L., McManus, M.S., Harris, W.A., Shanklin, S.L., Flint, K.H., Queen, B. Lowry, R., Chyen, D., Whittle, L., Thornton, J., Lim, C., Bradford, D., Yamakawa, Y., Leon, M., Brener, N., & Ethier, K. (2018). Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance — United States, 2017. MWR Surveillance Summary, 67(No. 67-8).、